Long counted, with Thomas Campbell, Alexander Campbell, and Barton Stone, as one of the four founders of the Stone-Campbell Movement. He is remembered in the Movement as the evangelist whose success in the field brought stability to the fledging reform movement led by Thomas and Alexander Campbell as it moved toward separation from the Baptists.
- Biography
- Scott’s Written Work
1. Biography
Walter Scott was born in 1796, the sixth of ten children. His parents, John and Mary Innes Scott, lived in the small town of Moffatt, Scotland. The Scotts were Presbyterians, members of the Church of Scotland. They harbored hopes that their son Walter would become a Presbyterian minister. To this end, when Walter was 16, his parents supported his journey to the University of Edinburgh. Six years later, in 1818, he left the university. Presumably he graduated, since six years at Edinburgh constituted the normal program of study. Records in the university are incomplete for the period.
Scott arrived in New York in July 1818 at the invitation of his mother’s brother. He quickly found a job teaching English, Latin, and Greek in a small school on Long Island. Within a year, however, he moved to Pittsburgh, where he met George Forrester. Forrester, also from Scotland, served as a minister in a small congregation and as headmaster of a small school. The two men formed a personal bond. Over the course of the next year, Forrester helped to shape Scott’s approach to Christian faith, particularly his understandings of the church, the Bible, and baptism. Scott underwent baptism by immersion at Forrester’s hands and became an active member of the congregation. From this point on, he advocated baptism by immersion for believers as the only authentic form of baptism.
Forrester’s congregation had connections to the movement influenced by the writings of James A. Haldane and Robert Haldane, two brothers who broke with the Church of Scotland in 1799. James Haldane became the minister of a new congregation in Edinburgh and served there for the next fifty years. Robert Haldane financially supported the establishment of a seminary in Glasgow, and the movement began to spread as far as England and America. The Haldanes eschewed creeds and hoped to restore the New Testament church for their time. Their practices included a weekly celebration of the Lord’s Supper and foot washing. By 1807 the Haldanes abandoned the practice of infant baptism and taught believers’ immersion.
Photo Caption: Walter Scott (1796-1861) was the most significant early evangelist in the Stone-Campbell Movement. He is usually considered to be one of its four founding leaders along with Barton Stone and the Campbells. Courtesy of the Disciples of Christ Historical Society
George Forrester also introduced Walter Scott to the writings of a few other Scottish theologians who had broken from the Church of Scotland. John Glas separated from the Church of Scotland in the early 1700s because he believed that the church’s connection to the state violated the New Testament emphasis on the spiritual nature of the church. He established a congregation that took its cues from the New Testament and from its study of the earliest Christian congregations. A group of elders served the church, with a strong emphasis placed on lay leadership in all facets of congregational life. Following the precedent they believed they found in the New Testament, the congregation met weekly at the Lord’s Table.
Robert Sandeman, Glas’s son-in-law, soon joined the movement and served it through his ability as a theologian. Sandeman’s writings were particularly influential for both Forrester and Scott. Though a Calvinist himself, Sandeman challenged the Calvinist belief that sinners had to be regenerated by “enabling grace” before they could believe the claims of the gospel. Instead, he stressed that persons among the elect became Christians when they believed the evidence presented in Scripture. Faith resulted from the rational act of believing rather than from changes God brought about in the heart and emotions of a person through the provision of “enabling grace.”
George Forrester died in a drowning accident in 1820, just a year after Scott met him. After Forrester’s death, Walter Scott served both as pastor to the congregation and as director of the school. According to his own testimony, he read widely from Forrester’s religious library and deepened his commitment to a restoration-oriented approach to the church. Influenced as well by his encounters with writers representing the English Enlightenment, primarily Francis Bacon and John Locke, Scott began to emphasize an individual’s ability to think through problems and reach rational solutions. As an autonomous thinker, each person should be able to examine the facts, think critically, and reach a reasonable conclusion as to the truth of the matter at hand. With Locke, Scott believed that a person could read the Bible and use human reason to discern the truth of Christian faith.
An encounter with a pamphlet on baptism, written by Henry Errett, caused Scott to leave Pittsburgh briefly in 1821. Errett argued that baptism’s purpose involved the “remission of sins.” Scott became convinced that baptism was more than simply a Christian ritual or ordinance. Rather, it involved a positive action taken by Christians. God’s response to this action provided formal remission of sins through the death of Christ. Scott bid farewell to the congregation in Pittsburgh and left for New York to visit Errett’s congregation. The small conservative congregation he found there, however, disappointed him.
A few months after arriving in New York, Scott received a letter from the father of Robert Richardson, one of his more promising students at the academy in Pittsburgh. The letter carried the invitation to return to Pittsburgh to open a small school in the Richardson home and to continue his work with Robert and a few other children from neighboring families. Before accepting, Scott traveled to New Jersey, Maryland, and Washington, D.C. Unable to find exciting church life anywhere he traveled, Scott decided to return to Pittsburgh to take up the offer extended by the Richardson family.
Robert Richardson, who was 13 when Scott returned to Pittsburgh in 1821, had spent the year 1816 learning under the direction of Thomas Campbell, who had operated a small academy in Pittsburgh during that year. The Campbells, both Thomas and Alexander, occasionally visited the Richardson home in Pittsburgh. One of those visits took place during the winter of 1821-22, when Alexander Campbell stopped in Pittsburgh. Campbell described for Scott his work with the Redstone Baptist Association and talked of beginning a new journal. When the journal began the next year, Scott regularly contributed articles.
In 1823 Scott married Sarah Whitsette. Over the next ten years, they had six children. He moved the family to Ohio in 1826, spending a year in Steubenville before moving on to Canfield. Shortly after moving to Ohio, Scott began his intensive work with Campbell’s group of Reformers, who at the time were associated with the Mahoning Baptist Association. At the invitation of Alexander Campbell, Scott attended his first meeting of the association in Canfield in August 1826.
For two years Campbell had advanced his ideas among Baptist congregations on the Western Reserve and elsewhere in Ohio. He spoke against dependence on creeds, common among these Baptists who were committed to the Calvinistic theology of the Philadelphia Confession of Faith, and urged congregations to establish themselves on the firm foundation of the Bible and the example provided there of the character of primitive Christianity. When Scott visited the meeting in 1826, he quickly appreciated the fruits of Campbell’s work.
During the next year’s annual meeting, a proposal to employ an evangelist resulted in hiring Walter Scott to do the job. As he prepared, he hit on the formula that naturally grew out of his reading, teaching, and preaching over the previous seven or eight years. What must a person do to be saved? Based on Acts 2:38, Scott concluded that first a person must have faith, repent, and be baptized. In response to these human actions, God would provide remission of sins, the gift of the Holy Spirit, and eternal life. Several generations of Disciples learned this formula of salvation under the rubric of the “five-finger exercise,” with the fifth finger, for convenience’ sake, standing for both the gift of the Holy Spirit and eternal life. After an uneventful revival held in Steubenville, Ohio, Scott’s preaching drew considerable attention at a meeting in New Lisbon, Ohio. Later, Scott pointed to the sermon he preached on November 18, 1827, as the one that restored the ancient gospel. The text for his sermon was Matthew 16:16: “Thou art the Christ, the son of the living God.”
Over the course of the next three years, Scott’s preaching on the Western Reserve brought more than 3,000 converts into the Stone-Campbell Movement. Most of these new members came from among those who were outside the church altogether. Scott’s preaching did, however, include significant denominational conversions as well. Ministers were won over by the logic of Scott’s preaching and, occasionally, would bring their congregations into the fold of Campbell’s reform movement. Scott’s success led to increased Baptist opposition to Campbell and Scott, and the congregations associated with them. After a sister Baptist Association issued a condemnation of the Mahoning Association in 1829 for harboring the Campbell congregations, the Reformers voted to discontinue their association with the Baptists. Though Alexander Campbell questioned the wisdom of the move, Walter Scott convinced him to allow the separation to proceed. From that point on, the Reformers became Disciples and began their journey toward new ecclesiastical status, joining with Barton Stone’s Christians in 1832.
During the years following the dissolution of the Mahoning Association, though Scott continued to serve congregations and conduct evangelistic meetings, he turned more specifically to writing as a vocation. In 1832 he began publishing a periodical entitled The Evangelist from Cincinnati. When he moved to Carthage in the fall of 1833 to assume the pastorate of a congregation, he took the periodical with him. For the next dozen years or so, he wrote and ministered in Carthage, with the exception of the year (1836-37), which he spent as president of Bacon College in Georgetown, Kentucky. In April 1844 he moved his family back to Pittsburgh, where he lived until 1849.
On the occasion of the move to Pittsburgh, Scott began a new periodical, The Protestant Unionist, which he edited until 1847. After his wife died in 1849, Scott returned to Cincinnati. At that time he merged his interests in The Protestant Unionist with a periodical edited by J. T. Melish. Together, they coedited the new periodical, The Christian Age and Protestant Unionist, for about a year. In late 1849 Scott moved to Mays Lick, Kentucky, to spend half-time ministering to a small congregation. During the next summer he remarried.
In 1852 Scott moved his family to Covington, Kentucky, where he opened a school for females. Throughout his life, Scott had consistently stressed the importance of education for women. He especially supported the development of the so-called “female institutes” that specialized in providing a well-rounded education for women. While in Covington, he concentrated on teaching and writing. When his second wife died in November of 1854, he returned to Mays Lick, where he lived the remainder of his life. He married again in 1855 and spent his time preaching, conducting evangelistic work, and writing his final book, which he published in 1859, two years before his death. He died of pneumonia on April 23, 1861.
2. Scott’s Written Work
Most members of the Stone-Campbell Movement remember Walter Scott primarily for his evangelistic endeavors on the Western Reserve between 1827 and 1830, accompanied by his development of the five-finger exercise that summarized his understanding of the restored gospel. In those few years, he proved that he possessed a great gift as a preacher who concentrated, above all else, on preaching Christ to the unchurched. But he lived for more than thirty years beyond that time. His literary work, most of it written after 1830, exercised considerable influence on the Movement through the nineteenth century. That written work also contributed to the creation of a Stone-Campbell ethos that continued to work its influence throughout the twentieth century.
His journalistic endeavors point to a wide and somewhat eclectic range of interests. For example, Scott had a profound interest in the church’s music ministry and often did what he could to improve upon it. He most likely inherited his love of music from his father, who was a musician. Scott once spent $300 of his own money to publish a hymnal containing over 700 hymns. He hoped to encourage congregations to stop “the endlessly repeated singing of the same hymn to the same tune, at present so common in our assemblies.” Scott often editorialized on themes important to the Stone-Campbell Movement, but he also wrote regularly on topics that affected American life more generally, including journalistic sections devoted to both domestic and foreign news.
But the first thing to recognize about Walter Scott’s body of written work, as James Duke has demonstrated, is that it was profoundly theological. Throughout his life, Scott engaged actively in a faith that sought understanding. He believed in the importance of scholarly inquiry. Following Francis Bacon and John Locke, Scott sought a reasonable theology, one that could withstand reasonable critique and give an accounting of itself that reasonable people could understand. He sought evidence for faith and employed a grammatico-historical method of biblical interpretation (“inductive hermeneutics”) to find it. Both through his editorial work and through the books he wrote, Scott made theological contributions that answered the theological arguments of others. He weighed in on most of the theological controversies of his day, and he did so theologically.
Scott’s call by the Mahoning Association in 1827 led him to an exposition of his own theological understanding of the order of salvation (ordo salutis). He argued that the foundation for his understanding came from the Bible. But, in truth, his exposition also owed considerable debt to the work of theologians before him who had described the relationship between God and human beings as consisting primarily in covenants. The Westminster Confession of Scottish Presbyterianism contained a strong dose of covenant theology. The most important of these Scottish covenants for Christians had to do with the covenant God offered in Christ. In Christ, God saves the Christian, but in return the Christian owes complete faith and total obedience. The Westminster Confession placed the initiative squarely in God’s corner. God elects, and elected Christians respond. Scott sought a covenant that respected the sovereignty of God without the predestinarian appendages. He recognized the problems associated with works righteousness, the charge that human beings could save themselves by their own decisions and actions. His attempts to address the charge seem a bit shallow today, but nonetheless he recognized the problem and tried to address it theologically.
Scott’s most substantial written work, The Gospel Restored, appeared in 1836 as his second book. In it he set forth schematically his order of salvation, beginning with the fall of human beings in Adam and moving through their redemption in Christ. With the confidence of one who believed his restoration of the gospel placed him among Reformation luminaries like Luther and Calvin, Scott provided detailed sections on each of the six phases of his covenantal approach, three taken by the individual (faith, repentance, and baptism), and three provided by God (remission of sins, gift of the Holy Spirit, and eternal life). Scott’s order of salvation depended heavily upon a propositional approach to the Bible and upon categories often provided by Scottish Common Sense Realism.
The commonsense thought of the Scottish Enlightenment first emerged as a force in American theology near the end of the colonial period in the thought of Presbyterian John Witherspoon. Significant Scottish immigration after the American Revolution increased its role in American theology. In their quest for knowledge, and in response to the oft-asked question, “How does one truly know?” adherents of Scottish Common Sense Realism endorsed inductive reasoning as the scientific path to real knowledge. As part of this inductive process, they also depended upon the reliability of sensory experiences of the world around them. They believed in evidence, the rational appeal to facts, and, when attempting to discern divinely revealed truth, the reliability provided by the testimony found in the Bible. When dealing with questions of ethics and faith, they sought the solid ground provided by certain fundamental principles.
For Scott, the fundamental principle upon which all other propositions rested was the one declared by Peter in Matthew 16:16: Christ is “the Messiah, Son of the living God.” Scott called this fundamental principle the “Golden Oracle.” He described it as a “first principle” within Christianity, “the fundamental proposition of the whole religion.” The first principle describes that which is entirely self-evident, the proposition upon which every other proposition is built. The declaration of Christ as Messiah, as Son of the living God, served, for Scott, as the first principle of Christianity, the one self-evident proposition that served as the foundation for both salvation and the construction of the church. At the time of Christ’s baptism, God provided first-person confirmation of the truth of this proposition: “This is my Son, the Beloved, with whom I am well pleased” (Matt. 3:17). Belief in the proposition asserting the “Messiahship” of Jesus formed the central “first principle” of the restored gospel. Or, as Scott put it in The Gospel Restored (1836), “This oracle is, therefore, … the creed of Christianity, original Christianity; and he who believes the fact may become a Christian.”
But, in fact, there was more to Scott’s order of salvation. The human being must have faith that Christ was the Messiah, the Son of God, seek repentance, and be baptized. The possibility of responding to God in Christ belonged to all human beings, not just to members of some special “elect” group. In response to those who have faith, seek repentance, and are baptized, God would provide remission of sins and grant the gifts of the Holy Spirit and eternal life. To avoid the charge of works righteousness, Scott emphasized that sinners must become aware that their faith was in Jesus Christ. Human beings could not save themselves. They were saved only through faith in the fact that Jesus could save them. Salvation came completely from outside of themselves. Further, human beings are not only dependent upon Christ for salvation, but they are dependent upon God for their understanding of the fact that they are dependent upon Christ for salvation. God makes them aware of their need for faith in Christ. Thus, Scott argued, the initiative of God still preceded human action. How does God bring awareness to sinners? Historically, God has acted to bring salvation to human hearts. The Bible, through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, bears testimony to these saving acts of God in history. The testimony of God’s saving acts, found in the Bible, when heard and heeded, awakens the faith of sinners and enables them to have faith, seek repentance, and be baptized.
Scott’s order of salvation included a particular view of the Holy Spirit that challenged both Calvinism and contemporary views heralded by the revivalism of his day. Through his journal, The Evangelist, and through his first two books, he brought clarity to his views concerning the Holy Spirit. His first book, A Discourse on the Holy Spirit (1831), may have been slight in appearance (a mere twenty-four pages), but it proved bold in its challenge to contemporary understandings of the work of the Holy Spirit.
The mission of the Holy Spirit, for Scott, found expression in and through the church. The Spirit inspired the Bible and continues to inspire the apostolic preaching of Christians that presents the teachings of the Bible. The sinner’s encounter with the Spirit is always external — never internal. In other words, the Spirit uses the testimony of the Bible and apostolic preaching to demonstrate to the hearer that God’s Word is true. The Spirit works externally through the Bible and preaching to convince or persuade sinners of their need for faith. The Spirit enlivens and serves the work of the church. The Spirit, therefore, works through human mediation.
This approach to the work of the Spirit ran contrary to the popular belief of Scott’s day that the Holy Spirit provided “enabling grace” directly within sinners so that they could exercise faith and repentance. Calvinism’s doctrine of total depravity dictated that the Holy Spirit had to take the supernatural first step for the sinner. Without the Holy Spirit’s divine action within the soul of the sinner, the sinner could not step forward in faith. But for Scott, prior to salvation and baptism, the Spirit’s role was always external and always tied to the activity of the church. In line with Enlightenment presuppositions about humanity, Scott asserted the role of the independent individual who hears the evidence and rationally decides to respond in faith. The sinner is convinced by the power of both the Bible and the preached word to testify to the saving acts of God in history. Scott tied the role of the Holy Spirit, therefore, only to the external power of these testimonies rather than to some kind of internal operation on the sinner’s soul.
From the late 1830s through the mid-1840s, Scott became enamored with predictions concerning the second coming of Christ. Millennial enthusiasm captured large segments of American evangelicalism prior to the Civil War. Much of this enthusiasm manifested itself in efforts to reform society by creating new and model communities or by taking other steps to advance Christianity and civilization within the new nation. Most of the millennial enthusiasm was decidedly postmillennial in orientation, meaning that it was marked by optimism and reforming impulses. Defenders believed the success of the church’s efforts would bring in the millennium without the need of any supernatural event. A much smaller portion of American evangelicalism preferred the premillennial versions. Most premillennialists reached the pessimistic conclusion that history stood in need of a cataclysmic event to push it toward its intended destiny. The return of Christ would move things along rather quickly. Walter Scott, writing in The Evangelist, concluded in 1834 that “Christ has much work to do, which seems to require his immediate presence and direction; … which make his coming to earth, and abiding here for a time, highly necessary.”
Walter Scott’s endorsement of premillennialism, and his openness to William Miller’s predictions of Christ’s return in 1844, contributed to a degree of estrangement that had begun to develop between Alexander Campbell and Scott. Their feuding had other sources as well. The two of them had argued over whether the movement ought to use the name “Christian” or “Disciple.” Scott advocated the former, while Campbell stood for the latter. Scott also believed that Campbell treated him like a second-class citizen within the Movement, failing to accord him the respect he deserved for his restoration of the ancient gospel. When Scott lay hold of Miller’s premillennialism and chided fellow Disciples (October 1842) for their “ignorance of the prophetic word,” Campbell lamented (January 1843) that “some of our more intelligent and influential brethren” had been taken in by Miller’s ruminations. After dates for Miller’s original prediction (March 21, 1843) and revised prediction (October 22, 1844) for the return of Christ came and went, Walter Scott eventually became an enthusiastic postmillennialist, pushing belief in human progress, at times, further than Campbell ever did.
Scott’s editorial work revealed rather clearly a man captivated by the American experience. He admired Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson and possessed a profound belief in the mission of America to the world. By 1844, when he moved back to Pittsburgh and began editing his new journal, The Protestant Unionist, Scott’s journalistic work represented the Protestant crusade to reform America and the world more than distinctive Disciples beliefs and practices. The major quality characterizing the paper was its anti-Catholicism. As editor, Scott modeled the concerns of much of nineteenth-century evangelicalism in America. Repeated essays spoke of the “fearful advances” made by Catholicism in the country and claimed that “Protestantism, by which we mean the Bible, is the only hope of the nations.” Critics among the Disciples charged that Scott had abandoned restoration ideas in order to take up the cause of Protestantism in general. Union seemed to rest too much on anti-Catholicism and not enough on the “ancient gospel.”
Jacob Creath, Jr., a minister in the Movement, asked Scott directly (in November 1847) whether he still believed that the ancient gospel remained the only basis for union. Scott replied in The Protestant Unionist that he felt his plea for the ancient gospel had turned into a simplistic formula (five-finger exercise) that made it too easy for hearers to miss the profound basis upon which the ancient gospel had always rested, the proclamation of faith in Jesus Christ as the Son of God.
By 1852 Scott had begun to recognize the hopelessness of efforts to unite Protestants against any kind of threat, whether Catholicism, “Mohametism,” or idolatry. In his 1852 book To Themelion: The Union of Christians (128 pages), dedicated with deep affection to Alexander Campbell (battles between them apparently put to rest), Scott returned to familiar ground. Like most evangelicals of his day, Scott remained staunchly anti-Catholic. Catholics, he explained, built the church on human foundations (Peter, and his successors, the popes) instead of on Christ. But he also offered a strong critique of Protestantism. Coining a phrase, he argued that Protestantism was dominated by “the rage for creedification.” Protestants, once concerned with defending themselves against “the Papists,” have now been occupied in defending themselves against one another. If only they could return to the true creed, the divinity of Christ, they could experience the meaning of true union. This union, of course, would include a proper orientation to the six steps of the ancient gospel (faith, repentance, baptism by immersion, remission of sins, the gift of the Holy Spirit, and eternal life).
The next year Scott penned another book, Hē Nekrōsis, or the Death of Christ (132 pages). The first part (eighty-seven pages) concentrated on explaining both sin and redemption: on the one hand, Scott explained how humanity had ended up in such dire straits (the story of Adam as representative of the entire human community) and, on the other hand, how God had provided for the redemption of humanity (through the new Adam, Christ, as the new representative of humanity who, through his death, took on the sins of humanity). The second part (eighteen pages) argued the promise America held for the establishment of original Christianity. America provided the context where original Christianity could defeat the apostate nature of Catholicism and replace the provisional nature of Protestantism (which, because of its surrender to creeds and systems, would eventually have to give way to a purer form of Christianity). Scott placed his restored gospel near the end of the line of key reforming tendencies that began with Martin Luther and that would restore original Christianity to its rightful place in the world. The final part (twenty-five pages) challenged readers to finish building the edifice of the church on the proper foundation (Christ as Messiah) so recently rediscovered.
Scott’s postmillennial confidence in the role to be played by America came to its fullest expression in his final book, The Messiahship (367 pages), published in 1859. After rehearsing human history from Adam through the Roman Empire (119 pages) and covering the apostasy of Catholicism (38 pages) and the “promises and threatenings” found in the Bible (16 pages), Scott turned toward an exposition of the work of Christ (68 pages) and, eventually, toward an accounting of various other “sundries” (41 pages), including discussion of the “Reformations of the Sixteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.” Before finishing the book with a section on character and responsibility (32 pages), Scott spent thirty-nine pages on the topic of “Political Christianity.” This section heralded “America as the first of the Messianic nations.” His treatment of the millennium expressed great confidence that America, and American Protestantism in particular, would play a great role in bringing the nations to true Christianity.
In the end, however, Scott could not sustain the confidence of this vision. The hanging of John Brown took place in December 1859. By February of 1861, the Confederacy organized with Jefferson Davis as president. Fort Sumter fell ten days before Walter Scott died. With secession and Civil War inevitable, Scott feared the end of the nation’s messianic role. Despair resulted when this realization hit home, for Scott linked the restoration of the ancient gospel to American’s mission in the world. For that reason, a divided union seriously threatened original Christianity. Scott died with very little confidence remaining in his convictions about human progress and in the role Protestant churches and national activities would play in bringing the millennium. In an ironic twist, the failure of both the nation and Protestantism, increasingly evident in the few years before his death, led Walter Scott back to where he had begun his theological journey. He died recognizing his complete dependence on the fundamental principle itself. He remembered that his hope, and the hope of those Christians who would follow him, lay not with Protestants or with the nation, but with Christ, the Messiah, the Son of the living God.
See also Bacon College; Campbell, Alexander; Campbell, Thomas; Common Sense Philosophy; Eschatology; Evangelist, The; Glas, John; Haldane, Robert, and James Alexander Haldane; Mahoning Association; Presbyterians, Presbyterianism; Protestant Unionist, The; Redstone Baptist Association; Richardson, Robert; Sandeman, Robert; Stone, Barton Warren
BIBLIOGRAPHY William Baxter, Life of Elder Walter Scott (1874) • William A. Gerrard III, A Biographical Study of Walter Scott: American Frontier Evangelist (1992) • Walter Scott, A Discourse on the Holy Spirit (1831) • Walter Scott, The Gospel Restored (1836) • Walter Scott, To Themelion: The Union of Christians, on Christian Principles (1952) • Walter Scott, Hē Nekrōsis, or the Death of Christ (1853) • Walter Scott, The Messiahship, or Great Demonstration (1859) • Dwight E. Stevenson, Walter Scott: Voice of the Golden Oracle (1946) • Mark G. Toulouse, ed., Walter Scott: A Nineteenth-Century Evangelical (1999).
Mark G. Toulouse
This entry, written by Mark G. Toulouse, was originally published in The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement (Edited by Douglas A. Foster, Paul M. Blowers, Anthony L. Dunnavant, and D. Newell Williams; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004), pages 673-679. Republished with permission.